Shen, X.; Hui, W.T.; Hu, S.; Yang, F.; Wang, J.; Yao, J.; Louwen, A.; Tam, B.S.T.; Rong, L.; McMeekin, D.P.; Lohmann, K.; Yuan, Q.; Naylor, M.C.; Kober-Czerny, M.; Seo, S.; Holzhey, P.; Zaininger, K.A.; Christoforo, M.G.; Carroy, P.; Barth, V.; Yeung, F.S.Y.; Noel, N.K.; Johnston, M.; Lin, Y.H.; Snaith, H.J.: Crystal-facet-directed all-vacuum-deposited perovskite solar cells. Nature Materials 25 (2026), p. 999-1010
10.1038/s41563-026-02494-w
Open Accesn Version
Abstract:
Vacuum-based deposition is a scalable, solvent-free industrial method ideal for uniform coatings on complex substrates. However, all-vacuum-deposited perovskite solar cells fabricated by thermal evaporation trail solution-processed counterparts in efficiency and stability due to film quality challenges, necessitating advancement and improved understanding. Here, we report a co-evaporation route for 1.67-eV wide-bandgap perovskites by introducing a PbCl2 co-source to optimize film quality. We promote perovskite formation with pronounced (100) ‘face-up’ orientation and deliver a certified all-vacuum-deposited solar cell with 18.35% efficiency (19.3% in the laboratory) for 0.25-cm2 devices (18.5% for 1-cm2 cells). These cells retain 80% of peak efficiency after 1,080 h under the ISOS-L-2 protocol. Leveraging operando hyperspectral imaging, we provide spatiotemporal spectral insight into halide segregation and trap-mediated recombination, correlating microscopic luminescence features with macroscopic device performance while distinguishing radiative from non-ideal recombination channels. We further demonstrate 27.2%-efficient 1-cm2 evaporated perovskite-on-silicon tandem cells and outdoor stability of all-vacuum-deposited tandems in Italy, retaining ~80% initial performance after eight months.